phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) + yeast consensus sequence

phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) coding region from Rhodosporidium toruloides preceeded by the yeast consensus sequence for improved expression.

Background and priniciples

Structure of Xanthohumol

Usage and Biology

Inhibition of the metabolic activation of procarcinogens:

2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinolone, found in cooked meat, verified as a procarcinogen in an ames salmonella mutagenicity test. The inhibition is probably a result of an inhibition of the cytochrome P 450 enzymes Cyp1A1, Cyp1B1 and Cyp1A2 (phase 1 enzymes). But in order to achieve a clear inhibition, plasma concentrations of 1 µM would be necessary. In a study with male rats oral administration of xanthohumol (50 mg/kg) led to concentration maximums of 65 -180 nM after 4 h. Improved resorption of xanthohumol could be a possible target for innovation [[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11240137 Yilmazer et al. 2001a], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10995285 Miranda et al. 2000b], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10752639 Henderson et al., 2000], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12481418 Gerhauser et al., 2002]].

Induction of carcinogen-detoxifying enzymes (phase 2 enzymes):

P450-activated carcinogens get conjugated to endogenous ligands (gluthathione, glucoronic acid, acetate and sulfate) by phase 2 enzymes to facilitate excretion. Therefore the induction of phase 2 enzymes should enhance the protection against carcinogenesis. Xanthohumol cat concentrations of 2.1-10.1 µM could induce quinone reductase (detoxification of quinones by conversion to hydroquinones which can be conjugated) in hepatoma Hepa 1c1c7 cells. It was shown that xanthohumol could selectively induce quinone reductase without causing a transcriptional activation of Cyp1A1 [[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11038156 Miranda et al., 2000c], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12481418 Gerhauser et al., 2002]].

Inhibition of tumor growth at an early stage:

Xanthohumol showed an inhibition of the proliferation of breast cancer (MCF-7) and ovarian cancer (A-2780) in vitro at IC50 values of 13 and 0.52 µM http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10418944 Miranda ''et al.'', 1999. Furthermore xanthohumol can inhibit the endogenous prostaglandin synthesis through inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) with IC50 values of 17 and 42 µM. An increased prostaglandin production has been associated with the uncontrolled proliferation of tumor cells http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12481418 Gerhauser ''et al.'', 2002. Pharmacokinetic studies for xanthohumol based on beverages with an xanthohumol content of 50 mg/l in humans are part of actual research activities.

Antioxidant activities:

Xanthohumol at 5 µM decreased conjugated diene formation as a measure for lipid peroxidation by more than 70 % after 5 h of incubation in an in vitro assay (protection of LDL from Cu2+ induced oxidation). Furthermore xanthohumol was shown to scavenge hydroxyl-, peroxyl- and superoxide anion radicals http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11038156 Miranda ''et al.'', 2000c. </div>

Biosynthesis

Biosynthesis of Xanthohumol

The biosynthetic pathway of 4-coumaroyl-coenzyme A starts with the conversion of L-Phenylalanine to cinnamate, being catalyzed by phenylalanin ammonia lyase (PAL) [A]. PAL also shows activity in converting tyrosine to p-coumarate, but with a lower efficiency [B]. The cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H) catalyzes the synthesis of p-hydroxycinnamate from cinnamate and 4-coumarate [C]: CoA ligase (4CL) converts p-coumarate to its coenzyme-A ester, activating it for reaction with malonyl CoA [D] [Trantas et al., 2009]. The flavonoid biosynthetic pathway starts with the condensation of one molecule of 4-coumaroyl-CoA and three molecules of malonyl-CoA, yielding naringenin chalcone. This reaction is carried out by the enzyme chalcone synthase (CHS) [E]. Chalcone is isomerised to a flavanone by the enzyme chalcone flavanone isomerase (CHI). From these central intermediates, the pathway diverges into several side branches, each resulting in a different class of flavonoids, such as xanthohumol.

There are 5 enzymes necessary for the biosynthesis of xanthohumol ([http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?type=NIL&object=PWY-5135 MetaCyc]):

Enzyme [A]: PAL = phenylalanine ammonia lyase: L-phenylalanin --> trans-cinnamate

Enzyme [D]: 4CL = 4-coumarate - coenzym A ligase: 4-coumarate --> 4-coumaroyl-CoA

Enzyme [E]: CHS = naringenin - chalcone synthase: 4-coumaroyl-CoA --> naringeninchalcone

Enzyme [F]: APT = aromatic prenyltransferase: naringeninchalcone --> desmethylxanthohumol

Enzyme [G]: OMT1 = chalcone O-methyltransferase: desmethylxanthohumol --> xanthohumol

Jiang et al succeeded in the biosynthesis of several flavonoids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by the assembly of a plasmid containing three required enzymes (pKS2µHyg-PAL-4CL-CHS) and thereby showed the proof of principle. The activity of each enzyme was demonstrated and the presence of naringenin, which forms the product of the three enzymes( PAL, 4CL, CHS), was shown. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14704995 Jiang and Morgan, 2004

Characterization

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Sequence and Features

Assembly Compatibility:

10
COMPATIBLE WITH RFC[10]
12
COMPATIBLE WITH RFC[12]
21
INCOMPATIBLE WITH RFC[21]
Illegal BglII site found at 2096
Illegal BamHI site found at 358
Illegal XhoI site found at 409
Illegal XhoI site found at 472
Illegal XhoI site found at 490
Illegal XhoI site found at 568
Illegal XhoI site found at 769
Illegal XhoI site found at 1012
Illegal XhoI site found at 1759
23
COMPATIBLE WITH RFC[23]
25
INCOMPATIBLE WITH RFC[25]
Illegal NgoMIV site found at 928
Illegal NgoMIV site found at 1174
Illegal NgoMIV site found at 1342
Illegal NgoMIV site found at 1485
Illegal NgoMIV site found at 1819
1000
INCOMPATIBLE WITH RFC[1000]
Illegal BsaI site found at 469
Illegal BsaI site found at 799
Illegal BsaI site found at 805
Illegal BsaI.rc site found at 1930
Illegal SapI site found at 759

References

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12481418 Gerhauser et al., 2002 Gerhauser, C., Alt, A., Heiss, E., Gamal-Eldeen, A., Klimo, K., Knauft, J., Neu- mann, I., Scherf, H.-R., Frank, N., Bartsch, H., and Becker, H. (2002). Cancer chemopreventive activity of xanthohumol, a natural product derived from hop. Mol Cancer Ther, 1(11):959–69.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10752639 Henderson et al., 2000 Henderson, M. C., Miranda, C. L., Stevens, J. F., Deinzer, M. L., and Buhler, D. R. (2000). In vitro inhibition of human p450 enzymes by prenylated flavonoids from hops, humulus lupulus. Xenobiotica, 30(3):235–51.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14704995 Jiang and Morgan, 2004 Jiang, H. and Morgan, J. A. (2004). Optimization of an in vivo plant p450 monooxygenase system in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol Bioeng, 85(2):130–7.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10737704 Miranda et al., 2000a Miranda, C. L., Aponso, G. L., Stevens, J. F., Deinzer, M. L., and Buhler, D. R. (2000a). Prenylated chalcones and flavanones as inducers of quinone reductase in mouse hepa 1c1c7 cells. Cancer Lett, 149(1-2):21–9.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10418944 Miranda et al., 1999 Miranda, C. L., Stevens, J. F., Helmrich, A., Henderson, M. C., Rodriguez, R. J., Yang, Y. H., Deinzer, M. L., Barnes, D. W., and Buhler, D. R. (1999). Antiproliferative and cytotoxic effects of prenylated flavonoids from hops (Humulus lupulus) in human cancer cell lines. Food Chem Toxicol, 37(4):271–85.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10995285 Miranda et al., 2000b Miranda, C. L., Stevens, J. F., Ivanov, V., McCall, M., Frei, B., Deinzer, M. L., and Buhler, D. R. (2000b). Antioxidant and prooxidant actions of prenylated and nonprenylated chalcones and flavanones in vitro. J Agric Food Chem, 48(9):3876–84.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11038156 Miranda et al., 2000c Miranda, C. L., Yang, Y. H., Henderson, M. C., Stevens, J. F., Santana-Rios, G., Deinzer, M. L., and Buhler, D. R. (2000c). Prenylflavonoids from hops inhibit the metabolic activation of the carcinogenic heterocyclic amine 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4, 5-f]quinoline, mediated by cdna-expressed human cyp1a2. Drug Metab Dispos, 28(11):1297–302.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19631278 Trantas et al., 2009 Trantas, E., Panopoulos, N., and Ververidis, F. (2009). Metabolic engineering of the complete pathway leading to heterologous biosynthesis of various flavonoids and stilbenoids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Metab Eng, 11(6):355–66.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11240137 Yilmazer et al., 2001a Yilmazer, M., Stevens, J. F., and Buhler, D. R. (2001a). In vitro glucuronidation of xanthohumol, a flavonoid in hop and beer, by rat and human liver microsomes. FEBS Lett, 491(3):252–6.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11181488 Yilmazer et al., 2001b Yilmazer, M., Stevens, J. F., Deinzer, M. L., and Buhler, D. R. (2001b). In vitro biotransformation of xanthohumol, a flavonoid from hops (Humulus lupulus), by rat liver microsomes. Drug Metab Dispos, 29(3):223–31.

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